The Cambridge Dictionary defines beauty as “the quality of being pleasing and attractive, especially to look at” (Cambridge Dictionary, 2024), a vague and somewhat unclear description of an industry filled with ‘experts’ and imposed objectivity.

Beauty is preached and taught to be almost entirely subjective, yet the idea of 'beauty standards' suggests that a formulaic approach towards looks and aesthetics can exist. Although many Western nations have changed their mannerisms and opinions towards the 'ideal look', this remains a topic of debate within the more homogenous-appearing countries of East Asia. Plastic surgery and aspirations toward AI appearances seem innovative and define the beauty industry's future. 

The beauty industry in East Asia is among the most influential globally, shaping standards through skincare innovations, makeup trends, and even the culture of plastic surgery. Nowhere is this more evident than in South Korea, where cosmetic procedures are not only standard but are often regarded as a rite of passage, sometimes gifted by parents upon their children's graduation (Dockeray, 2019). Perhaps the normalisation of altering one’s appearance is an extension of the ongoing progressive movement and its contributions towards greater choice: is beauty culture a form of self-expression, or does it arise from deeply ingrained societal pressures?

The Beauty Industry

Profitability

Like with most industries, the beauty industry is mainly driven by profit, utilising both individualistic and collectivist aspects of human nature – the desire to stand out and feel confident about your appearance whilst also conforming to societal beauty standards so as to ‘fit in’ with convention. 

For beauty and personal care products, the big 3 of East Asia (China, Korea and Japan) represent 35% of the global market. Given that the international beauty industry is valued at US $427 billion in retail sales (Rellie, et al., 2024), having such a significant market share highlights the lucrativeness of being successful in this industry. Despite leaders being situated in a lot of Western countries such as L’Oréal, it appears that the cosmetic industry within Asia has undergone a ‘boom’, caused by a combination of  Asian consumers appreciating their own “rich cultural background and ancient beauty practises” (Rellie, et al., 2024), as well as the greater shift towards consumer culture, where innovators have looked to combine both Eastern and Western elements in cosmetics.

In an increasingly globalised world, this effect will naturally become more impactful as Asian individuals in non-Asian countries may find themselves reconnecting with their culture by maintaining and appreciating their ‘Asian looks’ via beauty products rather than having to fully assimilate to the norms and aesthetic customs of the country in which they reside. Resultantly, the Asian beauty market has been predicted to overtake North America’s (5.7% CAGR) and Western Europe’s (4.3% CAGR) growth potential, projecting a percentage of 6.7% CAGR from 2023 to 2027 (Rellie, et al., 2024).

In compliance with the rising influence of technology in day-to-day life, access to online markets, adoption of ‘technologically advanced’ products, and the significance of advertising positively affect the beauty industry. The use of LED, radiofrequency and smart personalisation have all been examples of what is now known as ‘advanced skincare technologies’ (Rellie, et al., 2024) taken mainly on the Big 3. This innovation has generated excitement around the launch of products that seem newer and better than others, merely due to the emphasised complexities involved in their manufacturing.

The characteristics and trends influenced by consumers have also shaped the contemporary beauty industry. For millennials and Generation Z, who are currently in the best position to spend their disposable income on enhancing their appearance (Zhang, 2024), concerns regarding the environment, personal identity, and sustainability as 21st-century issues have only broadened the appeal of cosmetic products. Companies can create product ranges using sustainable ingredients or include customisation through luxury and premium beauty offerings, thereby expanding market potential and increasing the likelihood of purchasing beauty-related items. As this purchasing cycle continues, supported by a capitalist yet rational aspiration for self-improvement, it appears the beauty industry is on track for unstoppable success.

Beauty Standards

Western influences?

American influences on East Asia regarding beauty perception and body image have had surprisingly negative impacts despite the intended progressive image. Previously non-existent, the globalisation of American media and fast food is argued to have resulted in obesity and eating disorders in China and Hong Kong. Similarly, traditional ideas of beauty are being abandoned in favour of Western ones in China, and two-thirds of women and girls in Fiji reported trying to lose weight and feeling overweight after being exposed to American media messages (Dixon, 2011). An exploration of obesity rates delves into the broader societal repercussions of these ideals, suggesting that Western beauty standards, which have influenced perceptions in the East, may contribute to viewing the East Asian emphasis on health as restrictive and prescriptive.

Even though 3.6 percent of Japanese individuals have a body mass index (BMI) over 30, which is the international standard for obesity, compared to 32.0 percent of Americans, body positivity and mental health serve as important caveats. A relevant case study highlights the popularity of the Barbie doll in an international context. The standardised images of Western female beauty presented through its products have proven harmful to the identities of all women, and when introduced to the Malaysian market, they led to a significant increase in cases of anorexia nervosa and plastic surgery. Consequently, it was banned in the country (ibid, 2011). 

Asian envy towards Western ideals of beauty is a point argued by some because white standards still tend to anchor beauty culture and have been for an excessive amount of time. As to whether the surge in plastic surgery usage in the East correlates with the aspiration to appear more Western is heavily debatable. In 1926, eyelid surgery in New York was conducted on a Japanese man who underwent this process to appease and marry a white woman who wanted the “slant eye” characteristic of the Japanese gone (O'Connor, 2014). More generally speaking, the familiarity with tall, light-skinned people who have skinny noses, large eyes (Ali, 2020) and natural double-eyelids in mainstream media across the world implies that Western beauty features have been subconsciously idealised. 

However, counterarguments suggest that the Asian beauty industry has predominantly been characterised by its own history and culture rather than Western influences. Coupled with practices of isolationism and being among the few countries that have escaped complete Western colonisation, East Asia can be seen as a victim of its own constraints. For instance, the positive reception of larger eyes is said to invoke a “cuter” and “more attractive” (Chen, et al., 2020) image of women due to their association with baby mammals. Additionally, double eyelids are also described as contributing to this large eye narrative, creating a so-called innocent and “youthful look”, which aligns with the fascination with ‘aegyo-sal’ (ibid, 2020). The idealisation of pale skin is said to have originated from the agricultural practices of Japan and China, where being more tanned resulted from outdoor work in the fields, a practice that existed many centuries before any Western influence (ibid 2020).

Toxicity and its Implications

Although Western forces may not be the root cause of East Asia’s current beauty standards, their toxic nature is indisputable. The relationship between social capital and employment was not as explicit and direct as it was during the feudal and hierarchical systems of government that governed East Asia in the past, yet through a modernised lens, it persists.

Your family’s line of work, the university you attended and the type of car you own are all factors in determining someone’s specifications, or ‘specs’ for short. Known as being part of “spec culture” (Dockeray, 2019), beauty has been used in Korea as a method of comparison and, thus, competition. The discourse on “bodily capital”, (Bourdieu, 1978) capital and value gained from how someone looks or uses their physical abilities, is fundamentally related to the statements and universal agreements made on beauty standards. For example, intentions behind plastic surgery are based on the idea that better-looking individuals will find it easy to obtain jobs and find spouses, another form of artificially created but still existent privilege. In the idol and entertainment industry, by having celebrities advertised to give a ‘perfect image’ and a ‘perfect appearance’, artificiality is normalised, which can have degrading impacts on mental health and body perception. Statistical evaluations reveal that over 50% of plastic surgery cases in China are performed on individuals under the age of 26, in stark contrast to the 6% observed in Western nations (Ali, 2020). The introduction of competition in the private sector raises concerns regarding the development of East Asian countries, where an abundance of choice, a supposedly beneficial product of capitalism, may lead to excessive options and a preference for artificialism over natural-born features.

Ethics of Plastic Surgery

According to Hippocrates’ teachings on ethics, where one must “first do no harm”, plastic surgery or cosmetic surgery would be deemed unethical. However, with the implementation of the four basic principles of healthcare ethics, namely ‘autonomy, justice, beneficence and non-maleficence,’ (Goupil & Ferneini, 2019) there remain opportunities to justify such practices.

In terms of autonomy, plastic surgery is typically a decision made with informed consent from the patient, particularly due to its self-applying nature. Regarding justice, since plastic surgery is generally a personal choice and constitutes a private medical practice, it places little to no burden on the resources of the healthcare industry, rendering it ‘justified’. The strongest argument for cosmetic surgery rests on the principle of beneficence, where the alteration of one’s previous appearance, such as ‘fixing’ a skin defect, can offer psychological benefits for patients who feel insecure and face prejudice based on their looks. In relation to non-maleficence, since cosmetic surgery is expensive, time-consuming, relatively permanent, and not an essential need but rather a desire, a cost-benefit analysis will help determine its necessity. Thus, according to these four standards, given the priority of an individual’s own beliefs and decisions, plastic surgery remains an ‘ethical practice’.

Nevertheless, risks and the potential for human rights violations arise in the pursuit of ‘perfected beauty’ within body-related industries that could be exploited in the nightlife scene, which are typically centred around using the body as a means of income and profit for unsuspecting customers.

Concluding thoughts

The prominence of the beauty industry in East Asia illustrates a significant societal paradox: the coexistence of self-expression and personal choice with deeply entrenched beauty standards and consumer-driven pressures. While plastic surgery, makeup, and aesthetic enhancements can empower individuals, they also provoke questions about authenticity and societal expectations and fuel the commodification of appearance. The debate surrounding beauty extends beyond personal preferences and is more about the forces influencing those preferences; the normalisation of plastic surgery in countries like South Korea indicates that beauty is not merely an individual pursuit but a cultural expectation bolstered by media, capitalism, and the cycle of "pretty privilege." Therefore, the pursuit of beauty both shapes and is shaped by consumerism, where appearance becomes a product and self-worth is increasingly linked to external validation.

Perhaps the most important question to consider is not whether changing how someone looks is right or wrong, but rather if individuals are making these choices on their own, free from pressure from society. Real progress might not come from completely turning away from beauty standards but from building a universal understanding where beauty—whether it’s natural or enhanced—doesn’t define a person’s worth.

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